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Home : Quarterly Archives : Volume 28 |
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Tredyffrin Easttown Historical Society |
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Source: April 1990 Volume 28 Number 2, Pages 50–62 Keeping Track of How We Have Grown: 200 Years of U.S. Census Taking This year, as the United States conducts its twenty-first decennial census, we also mark the 200th anniversary of the first federal census of 1790. "Census Day" for this year's census is April 1st. Census taking is a very old practice, both to measure potential military strength and for taxation purposes. There is record of a census in China made at the command of the Emperor Fu in the year 2662 B.C., more than 4600 years ago. It was, in fact, to comply with a census ordered by the Roman Caesar Augustus that Joseph and Mary traveled to Bethlehem and were there when Christ was born. Our word "census" is derived from the Roman census. It was first taken in about 560 B.C. during the reign of Servius Tollius, the sixth king of Rome. The task of taking the census was one of several functions performed by an official called the censor (from the Latin censere, to assessor estimate) and the count became known as the census. As is the case with our census today, the Roman census was more than just "a head count"; all Roman citizens were required to appear at the Campus Martius on a certain day to declare under oath not only their names and dwelling and the names of their children, but also the value of their property. (The penalty for non-compliance, incidentally, was the confiscation of their goods and being scourged and sold into slavery.) Thus one description of a census is "the official enumeration of persons [and] their property generally, with such facts as tend to show their social, physical and industrial condition". At one time or another during the colonial period in North America various censuses were taken -- in Virginia as early as in 1674 -- as the British Board of Trade made enumerations of the colonial population for commercial purposes. Even earlier, in the colony of St. Augustine in New Spain, a census was taken in 1568. By the time of the Declaration of Independence and the Revolutionary War, censuses of at least segments of the population had been taken in each of the English colonies except Pennsylvania, North and South Carolina, and Georgia. The provisions of the new federal Constitution, drafted after the war in 1787, however, created a need for a national census. In Section 3 of Article I of the Constitution, it was provided that "Representatives [in the House of Representatives] and direct Taxes [to pay off the debt from the great cost of the War for Independence] shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers". Thus a national census was needed to determine "their respective Numbers", and provision was made in the same section that such an "actual Enumeration shall be made within three years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they [the Congress] shall by law direct". (In the meantime, "until such enumeration shall be made" each state was temporarily assigned a number of seats, ranging from one representative for the state of Delaware to eight each for Pennsylvania and Massachusetts.) The Census Act of 1790, establishing the manner in which the first census was to be conducted, was passed during the second session of the first Congress and approved on March 1, 1790, well within the three-year period set forth in the Constitution. Under its provisions the enumeration was to be made by the United States marshals or by assistants of their choice, under the direction of the Secretary of State. Each enumerator, incidentally, had to provide his own pencils and paper; it was not until the 1830 census that standardized printed schedules were furnished for the census takers. The 1790 census of Tredyffrin and Easttown townships, and also for most of Chester County, was made by Nathan Strahorn, who described himself, in his report, as "Assistant to the Marshal of Penna." Six questions were asked in each family: the name of the head of the family; the number of free white males of 16 years and upward (to determine how many men might be available for military service), the number of free white males under 16 years of age; the number of free white females, including heads of families; the number of all other free persons; and the number of slaves. With the difficulties of colonial travel, the relative sparseness of the inhabitants in the area, and the opposition among some families to being counted, it took Strahorn more than a year to complete his assignment. In April 1791 he filed a certificate in which he reported, "The number of persons within my division composed of the County of Chester appears in a schedule herewith connected. Subscribed by me the 13th day of April, one thousand seven hundred and ninety-one." The enumeration for Tredyffrin showed a total of 986 persons (275 free white males 16 years and upward, 217 free white males under 16 years, 466 free white females, 25 other free persons, and three slaves) in 157 households. In Easttown there were 423 persons (113 free white males 16 years and upward, 111 free white males under 16 years, 197 free white females, no other free persons, and two slaves) in 75 families. [Note 1] In contrast to the confidentiality of today's census, upon completion of the enumeration in 1790, each enumerator was required to post the returns" at two of the most public places ... to remain for the inspection of all concerned". With the 1800 census, however, the findings were sent to the Secretary of State in Washington and not posted. Today all identifiable information about any person, household, or business must be kept confidential for a period of 72 years. The information obtained in the next two decennial censuses, in 1800 and 1810, was much the same as that gathered in the first census, but the number of questions was increased to thirteen to provide additional detail concerning the ages of the persons in each household. Information was now obtained on the number of free white males under 10, from 10 to 16, from 16 to 26, from 26 to 45, and from 45 upwards, with similar detail for the free white females. Indians not taxed were also specifically not included among other free persons in the enumeration. In the Census Act passed on May 1, 1810 the marshals and their assistants making the census that year were also instructed to "take an account of the several manufacturing establishments and manufactures within their several districts", the beginnings of a regular census of manufactures. In the 1820 census the same information was again obtained regarding the name of the head of the household and the number of free white males and free white females in the various age brackets, but additional questions were asked to obtain information about the sex and age [under 14, between 14 and 25, and 25 and upward] of free colored persons and of slaves. Information on the number of foreigners not naturalized, the number of persons in the family not at home on August 1st, and the number of persons at that place that day who were without a "settled place of residence" was also obtained. For the first time, a question on agriculture was included as information was also gathered on the number of persons in each family who were engaged in agriculture, in commerce, and in manufactures. A total of thirty-five questions was asked of each family. The fifth census, in 1830, covered population characteristics only, but several new questions were again added. In addition to a more detailed breakdown of the age of persons in the family [including those "who might have been occasionally absent" on the first day of June] and a question on the total number of persons in the household that day, there were also questions on the number of persons who were deaf and dumb and the number who were blind. The individual names of persons at the place but without a settled place of residence were also recorded. To assist in obtaining information for all families, the marshals and assistant marshals taking the census were also instructed to "give notice, if necessary, to the free persons over 16 years of age, of the obligation to answer these questions, by reading to them the sixth section of the act" mandating the census. Six assistant marshals were appointed to make the enumeration for Chester County; the enumerator for Tredyffrin and Easttown townships was Enoch Davis. The scope of the census was considerable broadened in 1840 as the Census Act that year provided for the collection of information concerning "the pursuits, industry, education and revenues of the country". In addition to the information about the household obtained in the 1830 census, the schedule now included questions on the number of persons in each family employed in various types of business [mining, agriculture, commerce, manufactures and trades, navigation of the oceans, navigation of canals, lakes and rivers, licensed professions and engineers]; the names and ages of pensioners for Revolutionary War or other military service; the number of scholars [in universities or colleges, academies, primary and common schools, or a public charge]; and the number of in sane persons as well as the number of deaf and dumb and blind. The schedule for "the whole number of persons" now contained 81 questions to be answered for each family. (For farm families there was also a separate agricultural schedule to obtain information on agricultural production, with questions on the number of livestock of various kinds, the grains grown, and the crops [cotton, sugar, nursery products, and forest products, including skins and furs] raised. Beginning with this census a separate agricultural census was made, apart from the population census. The content of the population census was again expanded materially in the 1850 census, the first to collect data for each individual member of the family rather than simply obtaining the number of persons in the family in the various categories. Each person in the family was listed by name, and for each person information was obtained regarding sex, age, race or color [white, black or mulatto]; profession or trade for both males and females 15 years of age and upward; the value of real estate owned; the value of his or her personal property; the place of birth; whether he or she had married within the past year; school attendance within the past year; whether unable to read or write English or another language for those more than 10 years ofage; and whether deaf and dumb, blind, insane or idiotic, or a convict. A separate schedule was provided for the enumeration of slaves. Information on the "productive industrial establishments" in each enumerator's district was also obtained in a separate schedule, in addition to the census of agriculture. Under the provisions of the 1850 Census Act all the data collected in the field was sent to Washington for tabulation. The conduct of the census and the census reports were also now under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior rather than the Secretary of State. More than 25 assistant marshals were appointed as enumerators to take the census in Chester County. The enmumerator for Tredyffrin Township was Daniel Beitler; for Easttown, Rees H. Baker. There was little change in the scope of the census and the information obtained in the next two censuses in 1860 and 1870. (The 1860 census was, of course, the last in which information about slaves was obtained.) The enumerators for Tredyffrin and Easttown in 1860 were Robert Neilly and Hugh Mooney, respectively. In taking the 1870 census the marshals were instructed to be as specific as possible in reporting the "profession, trade or occupation" of each person and to "avoid unmeaning terms [for example, professor, contractor, clerk] or such as are too general to convey a definite idea of the occupation". In short, they were to "find out what he [or she] does and then characterize the occupation accordingly". One change in the 1870 census was the addition of questions on "constitutional relations", with a check to be made for each person who was a "male citizen of 21 years of age and upweards" and also if he claimed that his right to vote had been "denied or abridged on other grounds than rebellion or crime" (as a means of determining compliance with the provisions of the 15th amendment to the Constitution). Because of various discrepancies in taking the 1870 census -- Francis A. Walker, the superintendent who administered it, described the Census Act that year as "clumsy, antiquated and barbarous" -- to supervise the next census in 1880 a special temporary census office was established in the Department of the Interior, a practice that was followed for each decennial census for the balance of the century. A bill was also introduced by James A. Garfield in the House of Representatives to take the responsibility for collecting census information from the U.S. marshals, but the proposal was defeated in the Senate. Once again, additional questions were incorporated in the census of 1880: the relationship of each family member to the head of the household; the month of birth for persons born during the past year; each person's marital status [single, married, widowed or divorced]; the number of months each person had been unemployed during the past year; additional questions on health [whether each person was, sick or temporarily disabled "so as to be unable to attend to ordinary business or duties" on the day of the enumerator's visit, and if so the nature of the sickness or disability, whether crippled or bed-ridden or otherwise disabled]; and the place of birth of each person's parents. In reporting each person's color or race, Chinese and Indian were listed, as well as white, black, or mulatto. At the same time, the questions on the value of real estate and personal property, constitutional relations, and whether a person was a convict, included in the previous census, were eliminated. Apparently there had been some difficulty in 1870 in getting information on the health and disabilities of various members of the family: in the instructions to the enumerators in 1880 it was observed, "It not infrequently happens that fathers and mothers, especially the latter, are disposed to conceal, or even deny, the existence of such infirmities [deaf and dumb, blind, insane or idiotic] on the part of their children", and that the enumerator "is not required to accept answers that he believes, or has reason to believe, are false". The schedule for this 1880 census called for 26 items of information for each member of the family. With the average number of persons in each family in 1880 almost five, this meant that about 130 entries were made for each family. (And for farm families the agricultural census schedule contained 100 more questions!) To gather this mass of information in Chester County, 28 enumerators were appointed. (It was reported in the West Chester Daily Local News in late May that the "various enumerators were as thick as blackberries . . . getting sworn in at the Clerk of Courts office".) The enumerator for Easttown Township was Jonathan Griffith, with Dr. C. M. Wilson the enumerator for Tredyffrin. Their pay was based on the amount and type of work they performed, but in no case was to exceed $4.00 a day or $104.00 for the entire enumeration period of twenty-six days. Despite the fact that a special "tabulating machine" had been developed to facilitate the tabulation of the data, the amount of information collected in the census was so voluminous that it took almost a decade to publish all the findings. The magnitude of the task led to the development of the "Hollerith" card, by which certain data were recorded on the card by punching holes in it, making it possible to tabulate the information at a rate of 250 cards a minute by passing an electric current through the card. And, in fact, the 1890 census was even more comprehensive. In addition to the questions included in the census a decade earlier, the schedule for obtaining "Population and Social Statistics" also contained questions to find out whether each person had been a soldier, sailor or marine during the Civil War [in either the Union or Confederate forces] or the widow of a veteran; the ability to speak English, and if not, the language or dialect spoken; citizenship status [whether naturalized or naturalization papers taken out]; and whether suffering from acute or chronic desease, and if so the nature of the disease and length of time it had lasted. The question on whether each person was a prisoner or convict was also again included and also covered homeless children or paupers, and a special supplemental inquiry was included for those who were insane, feebleminded, deaf and dumb, blind, crippled, or temporarily disabled. In recording color or race, the enumerators were instructed to report quadroon, octoroon, Chinese, Japanese or Indian as well as white, black or mulatto. And, finally, information was also obtained on whether the home in which the family lived was "hired" or owned, and if owned whether it was free from mortgage incumbrance. (The scope of the 1890 census led to several newspaper satires, listing questions the enumerator was "not required to ask". In the Local in late May there was a list of twenty-one such questions, among them "Did you ever loaf on the Court House wall?" "Do you dye your whiskers?" "Do you ever eat onions?" "Are you in favor of the Lenape [trolley] branch?" "Do you chew gum?" "Are you a stockholder in the new opera house?" "Will a duck swim or a girl eat ice cream?") The enumerator for Easttown in 1890 was James H. Dawson; while there were two enumerators assigned to Tredyffrin, Nathan Broomall and J. Herman Rennard. There were only minor changes in the schedule for the 1890 census: in addition to the age of each person his or her date of birth was also recorded (in an attempt to get more accurate information on age); and, for married persons, information was obtained on the number of years he or she had been married to his or her current spouse. All persons of negro descent were simply recorded as black in the question on color or race. John H. Seasholtz, of Berwyn, was appointed the assistant marshal to make the population census in Easttown Township, and Henry C. Wilson, of New Centreville, and Charles Heite, of Strafford, were the enumerators for the two districts in Tredyffrin. Each enumerator was "furnished with a handsome nickel badge," it was reported in the Local, "surmounted by an eagle, with an inscription thereon designating his authority". Two years later, in 1902, a permanent census office was finally set up in the Department of the Interior. When the new Department of Commerce and Labor was created the following year, the Bureau of the Census was transferred to it. In 1913, when this department was split, the Census Bureau became a part of the Department of Commerce as it still is today. In the 1910 census, the date of birth for each person was not asked, and the questions on disability were limited to deaf and dumb, and blind; but the information on occupation [the trade or profession of every person, including children, the general nature of the industry, business, or establishment, whether an employer, employee, or working on his or her own behalf, and if an employee whether he or she had been out of work on April 15th of that year] was expanded. Information was also obtained as to whether each male 50 years of age or older who was born in the United States or had immigrated to this country before 1865 was a "survivor" of the Union or Confederate army or navy. The enumerator for Easttown in 1910 was William H. Johnson; for Tredyffrin, Thomas Logan and David Whitworth were the census takers. In the 1920 census questions were added to learn the mother tongue of each person of foreign birth and that of his or her mother and father, and whether they were able to speak English. For persons who were foreign born, the enumerators were instructed to report the city or province, as well as the country, in reporting the place of birth (because of the many boundary changes after the First World War). At the same time, the questions on unemployment included in the previous censuses were dropped. The census-taker for Easttown for this census was Otto H. Tavener, and in Tredyffrin the enumerators, now three in number, were Richard Sagebeer, Ellie Lee Tavener, and James R. McGill. A few new questions were also added in the census schedule for 1930, including a section on home data to obtain information on whether the home was owned or rented; if owned, its value and if rented the amount of the monthly rent; and whether the family had a radio set. A question on each married person's age at the time of his or her first marriage was also included in the section on personal description; and for each male over 21, information was obtained on whether he was a veteran of U. S. military or naval service, and if so in what war or expedition. The question on whether each person had been at work on the previous day was also again included. For those who had not been at work the previous day there was a supplemental unemployment schedule, with questions on whether the person usually worked at a gainful occupation and whether he or she had a job, with additional detail about his or her job [how many weeks he or she had worked at that job, why he or she was not at work the previous day, whether he or she lost pay because of the absence, the number of days worked the previous week, the number of days in a full work week] or on his or her unemployment situation [whether he or she was able to work, whether looking for a job, the number of weeks he or she had been without a job, the reasons for being out of a job or for losing the last job], whichever the case. In 1940 there was a considerable expansion in the scope of the census. The four questions on home data in the 1930 census were now expanded into a separate 30-question occupied-dwelling schedule for each household. With the development of sampling techniques, however, some of the information previously obtained for every person in the family was now taken for only one out of twenty persons, or five percent of the population. The five percent sample was selected by taking those names that fell on predetermined lines of the form used by the enumerator. With the addition of the housing schedule and the use of sampling, this census has been described by the Bureau of the Census as "the first contemporary census". The personal description or identification information [name, relationship to the household head, sex, race or color, age, and marital status; place of birth; occupation and industry; and home ownership or rental] was still obtained for everyone. In addition, information on the highest grade of schooling (replacing the question on illiteracy), and the place of residence five years earlier [the city, town or village or rural, and the county and state (which provided for the first time the basis for statistics on population migration)] was also obtained for everyone. For everyone 14 years of age and over, many of the questions from the supplemental schedule on unemployment from the 1930 census were also included, as well as information on the amount received in wages and salary and whether $50 or more had been received from other sources during the previous year. (The income question could be answered on a form that was then sealed and given to the enumerator rather than answering orally, if so desired. Incomes of more than $5000. were reported simply as "over $5000".) At the same time, the information on the place of birth of both parents, the language spoken during earliest childhood, veteran status [or the wife, widow or child of a veteran], and the information for married women on her age at marriage and the number of children was obtained for only those on the sample lines. Information was also obtained for the sample on social security [whether the person had a social security number, data concerning deductions for old age benefits] and for married women whether she had been married before her present marriage. Veteran status was also expanded to include peacetime service as well as service in war or expeditions. In the occupied-dwelling (or housing) schedule, information was obtained on the address; the color or race of the head of the household; the number of persons in the household, whether it was on a farm; and whether it was owned or rented, and its value or monthly rental. Other questions provided information on the characteristics of the structure [type of dwelling, exterior material in its construction, need for major repairs, year built] and on the characteristics of the dwelling unit [number of rooms, type of water supply, toilet facilities, whether there was a bathtub or shower with running water, type of lighting equipment, type of refrigeration, type of heating system and principal fuel used for heating, and principal fuel used for cooking]. For owner-occupied dwellings, data on the value of the property, whether there was a mortgage on it, and if so details concerning the mortgage were also obtained, while for rented units information was obtained as to whether the rent included the furnishings, and if so the amount they represented in the rent, and also the average monthly cost of utilities if they were included in the rent. Information on vacant dwelling units [location, occupancy status, and the estimated monthly rental value] was also reported by the enumerator on a separate schedule. Much the same information on population and housing was abtained in each census since 1940, including the 1990 census, although there have been some minor changes from census to census in both the questions asked and the sampling method. In the 1950 census, only the questions on name, relationship to the head of the household, race or color, sex, age, marital status, place of birth, and citizenship were asked of every person, witn the "information on employment and occupation also obtained for every person 14 years of age or older. The balance of the questions were asked on a sample basis, with the sample for this census twenty percent. Five different printings were made of the census forms used by the enumerators to vary the lines used to determine those to be included in the sample. In the population schedule, questions were included to provide additional information on income from various sources, and also on total family income, with provision that this information could be mailed directly to the Census Bureau if desired, rather than giving it to the enumerator in a sealed envelope. The questions in the housing schedule were also asked only for the sample households. New questions on facilities covered whether the home had electric lighting or a kitchen sink with running water, and the ownership of a television set was added to the information obtained on appliances. To determine the condition of the dwelling unit the enumerators reported whether it was delapidated or not delapidated rather than the need for major repairs. At the same time, the detailed data on mortgages was not included in the 1950 census. The development of the first large scale electronic computer, UNIVAC I, designed and built especially for the Bureau of the Census in 1951, considerably expedited the tabulation of the findings of tms census. The first model could tabulate 4000 items a minute. While this was a big improvement at that time, today's electronic computers can now process a million items per minute! In the 1960 census the sampling pattern was changed to include 25 percent of the households, with all the information on population characteristics obtained for everyone in each sample household, along with the housing information for that household. Only the information on name, relationship to the head of the household, sex, color or race, date of birth (in place of age), and marital status was obtained for every person in every household. There were also several changes in the content of the 1960 census from that of a decade earlier. In the population schedule, additional information was obtained about the person's education [whether completed the last grade of school attended, whether attending public, private or parochial school if still in school] and about employment and commuting patterns [location of place of business, method of getting to work]. New items in the housing schedule concerned the fuel used for heating water, whether the dwelling had a sewer connection, and the number of bedrooms, with air conditioning units, home freezers, clothes washing machines, electric or gas clothes dryers, and a telephone added to the inventory of household appliances in the home. Information was also obtained on the number of passenger cars owned or regularly used by persons in the family and on the ownership of trailers. At the same time, the questions in the preceding census on the presence of a kitchen sink, electric lighting, and type of refrigeration were not included, and the condition of the dwelling unit was determined by whether it was "sound" and the amount of deterioration. Much of the information in this census was gathered by self-enumeration. Questionnaires were sent to all the households in urban areas, to be completed and mailed back to the Census Bureau. Enumerators made visits or calls to gather the information only where the questionnaire was not returned or fully filled out; in rural areas; and in special situations such as institutions, group quarters, and for the homeless. With the development of a system called FOSDIC, an acronym for a file scanning device for input to computers, the census forms were designed so that a mark by a soft pencil in a dot opposite the appropriate answer could be transferred directly to a magnetic tape for processing by the computer. Self-enumeration was extended in the 1970 census to provide about 60 percent of the information obtained. Again, only the basic information of personal identification [name, relationship to the head of the household, sex, age, date of birth, and marital status] was obtained for everybody. Only minor changes were made in the content of the questionnaire. In the population schedule questions were asked to obtain information on whether the person was of Spanish descent, and also on the year of immigration and citizenship status of those who were foreign born. Information was also obtained on vocational training, and whether the person had a health disability that kept him from working, with the information on employment also including the name of the employer. In the housing schedule information on whether the home had a complete kitchen, whether there was abasement, and the number of bathrooms was added, and dishwashers were included in the inventory of appliances. The question on television also included whether the set was equipped to receive UHF broadcasts, but only battery-operated radios were now included. Finally, information was also obtained as to whether the family owned a second house. In the 1980 census the same basic personal identification data [name, relationship to the head of the household, sex, color or race, age, date of birth and marital status], with an additional question to identify persons of Spanish/Hispanic descent or origin (reflecting the influx of people of Hispanic descent into the country), were again obtained for everybody. The balance of the information in the population schedule and the information in the housing schedule was obtained from every second households in places of less than 2500 population and from every sixth household elsewhere. there were also a number of changes in the questionnaire used in the sample households in this census. In the population schedule, a question on the language spoken in the home was once again asked, as well as a question on how well each person spoke English. The information on the number of children, previously obtained only for married women, was also now obtained for all females 14 years of age and over, regardless of marital status. A change was also made to limit the information on disability to those of six months or longer duration. Information on the use of car pools was also obtained along with the other information on commutation to work. Similarly, in the housing schedule, while the question about a second home was not included, questions were added to obtain information on the cost of utilities and fuels [electricity, gas, water, oil or kerosene], the amount paid in real estate taxes; the annual premium for fire and hazard insurance; and whether there was a mortgage on the property, and if so the amount of the monthly payments and whether they included taxes or insurance. Information was also obtained on the number of vans and trucks, as well as the number of passenger cars, owned, but the questions about various appliances other than the telephone were not included. Almost 90 percent of the information gathered in this census was obtained by self-enumeration forms returned to the Census Bureau by mail. In the 1980 census, despite a sharp increase in the number of dwelling units in Tredyffrin and Easttown, the population in each township showed a decrease from the previous census. It was the first decline in population in Tredyffrin since the federal census was taken, while in Easttown it marked the second time the population was lower than the previous census, there having been a loss of seven persons in its population between 1920 and 1930. The total population for each township as recorded in each census is shown in the Appendix. Census forms for the 1990 census were mailed to each home or dwelling unit on March 23d, to be filled out and mailed back on Census Day, April 1st. Beginning on April 26th, enumerators will then go door-to-door to get the information from those who did not cooperate in the self-enumeration; and to obtain data for persons in institutions, group quarters, and the homeless. It is expected that there will again be increases in the population in both Tredyffrin and Easttown townships. By this time next year we will know, as the decennial census keeps track of who we are and how we have grown.
Top Appendix
Sources Encyclopedia Britannica. 200 Years of U. S, Census Taking (Bureau of the Census 1989) History and Organization of the Census (Bureau of the Census 1988) Census Education Project (Bureau of the Census 1988) Clipping file : Chester County Historical Society 1. A more detailed analysis of the findings of this census can be found in an articled entitled "Tredyffrin and Easttown in 1790" in the July 1982 issue [Vol. XX, No. 3] of the Quarterly. |
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